The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the susceptibility of the global tourism industry to the negative impact of health-related crises on international mobility and tourism demand. Moreover, in the ‘proverbial’ post-COVID-19 era, South Africa’s tourism industry is prone to the effects of various internal and external shocks. These include the conflict in Ukraine - and the subsequent energy and financial crises in South Africa’s major European tourist source markets, the global financial constraints associated with recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, and more pertinently localised crises such as floods in various provinces, the ongoing energy crisis, and increasing safety and security concerns. As part of the Department of Tourism’s research panel, NWU’s tourism research unit, TREES, and the University of Venda conducted a research study to develop a reflexive demand-oriented tourism resilience model. The model does two things, and thus it can be seen as a two-phased model. First, it uses tourism expenditure data before and immediately after the COVID-19 pandemic to assess if the tourism economy is bouncing back in ways demonstrating resilience. Second, it monitors domestic tourists' responsive travel behaviour and choices during and post-crises. The second phase investigates tourists’ travel behaviour for the international and domestic markets, leading to the International - Tourism Resilience Model (I-TRM) and the Domestic - Tourism Resilience Model (D-TRM). Probably the first of their kind, the models monitor and evaluate tourism indicators and their impact on travel behaviour, highlighting tourists’ travel preferences, risk-responsive behaviour, response to the crisis and post-crisis marketing communications, as well as profile aspects such as spending patterns – critical information to rebuilding and future-proofing the industry to become more resilient. This research and the models will enable the South African tourism industry to better understand domestic and international tourists amid crises and aid in tourism product development, as well as services and marketing innovation that sustainably boost inbound and local travel. Show less

The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the susceptibility of the global tourism industry to the negative impact of health-related crises on international mobility and tourism demand. Moreover, in the ‘proverbial’ post-COVID-19 era, South Africa’s tourism industry is prone to the effects of various internal and external shocks. Show more

Tourism is widely considered to be a viable vector for sustainable socio-economic development on the African continent due to the integrative nature of its value chain (forward and backward linkages with suppliers and service providers), as well as economic multiplier effect (tourism receipts, export products, employment creation, local economic development) (Matiza & Slabbert, 2019). However, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic-induced moratorium on domestic and international travel, tourism demand decreased significantly. The tourism industry received no income or visitors for several months, negatively influencing the value chain and labour market. It is true that a number of strategies were implemented to curb the effect of restrictions on the travel and tourism industry, such as pivoting from international to domestic tourism, allowing limited travel, providing support to the industry, etc. However, these strategies cannot guarantee a quick and complete recovery of the tourism industry. Added to this, the continuous uncertainty about the management of such a pandemic demands a future view of how to ensure that the South African tourism industry does not face the same challenges and is more prepared to ensure the sustainability and resilience of this industry. Based on a mixed-method approach, both the supply (qualitative research) and demand (quantitative research) sides of the industry were reviewed in the development of a resilience model for the tourism industry where specific actions and reactions of government, industry role players, and tourists guide the resuscitation of the industry. A two-phased model resulting from the research will yield immediate results that will direct the decisions taken by the government and the industry. Show less

Tourism is widely considered to be a viable vector for sustainable socio-economic development on the African continent due to the integrative nature of its value chain (forward and backward linkages with suppliers and service providers), as well as economic multiplier effect (tourism receipts, export products, employment Show more

The study focused on enabling small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) survival and growth during and post the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that has had devastating impacts on SMMEs that have high levels of vulnerabilities associated with the lack of resources and capacity to respond to disruptions. SMMEs are deemed to be critical to driving entrepreneurship and innovation, economic development and job creation. Supporting tourism SMMEs to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic is not only important for socio-economic development, but is central to ensuring that the tourism sector is on pathways to recovery, sustainability and future resiliency. The theoretical/ conceptual framework (specifically stakeholder, post-structuralist and diffusion theories linked to technology acceptance models) that informs the research reflects the multi-disciplinary and inter-sectorial orientation. A desktop study informed the research that focused on key thematic areas: contextualising the importance of tourism and tourism SMMEs specifically, tourism SMMEs and the COVID-19 pandemic context and trends, the role of tourism SMMEs generally and in South Africa specifically, COVID-19 impacts on SMMEs, and government and tourism SMME responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. A mixed methods approach was adopted using both quantitative (404 SMME surveys) and qualitative (12 key informant interviews) methods. The main findings indicate that tourism SMME differ considerably in relation to the location operating from, turnover, the status of the business in terms of formality, number of employees, number of years in operation and activities involved in. Most SMMEs experienced severe turnover and staff losses associated with the pandemic (and in the case of Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal compounded by the social unrest as well). Restrictions on travel, social interactions and consumption (including alcohol bans) were key reasons that impacts on demand and thereby the revenues of SMMEs. The most vulnerable businesses in relation to COVID-19 pandemic impacts were micro enterprises since they have limited resources and opportunities to access support. The results suggest that tourism SMMEs are on a recovery pathway. However, some SMMEs will not recover while others are likely to take a longer time to be fully operational. Different and multiple types of SMMEs were adopting a range of tools and measures to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic that included employee changes, business/ organisational adjustments and financial changes. Accessing government and other external support was limited. Small and medium businesses located in urban areas were more likely to be aware of and access external support. This study proposes a tourism SMME recovery framework that uses Drivers, Pressures, State, Impacts and Reponses (DSPIR) model, an awareness campaign and training framework, and the Political, Economic, Socio-cultural, Technological, Ecological and Legal (PESTEL) model. A key recommendation is improvements in the conceptualisation, administration and implementation of financial support provided. Recommendations for implementation are also suggested and include coordination, activity management, knowledge management, resource management, and monitoring and evaluation. Show less

The study focused on enabling small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) survival and growth during and post the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that has had devastating impacts on SMMEs that have high levels of vulnerabilities associated with the lack of resources and capacity to respond to disruptions. SMMEs Show more

The COVID-19 global pandemic has caused unprecedented socio-economic impacts and, at the same time, raised awareness of the role social and environmental sustainability needs to play in our everyday life and economic activities. Despite the significant negative impacts of the pandemic on tourism in South Africa, the crisis provides an opportunity to transform value chains towards responsible consumption and production needed for a sustainable and inclusive recovery of the sector. Rural tourism is ideally placed to respond to this. With our unique, diverse and unspoilt rural areas there are a wealth of opportunities for small, medium and micro enterprises to grow and develop sustainable tourism products in rural contexts. However, in doing so, tourism growth in rural areas needs to be decoupled from the depletion of natural resources and contribute towards livelihoods and wellbeing of communities through the growth of local economies. Within the rural tourism sector, local economic development and environmental protection should not be seen as opposing forces—they should be pursued together as aspirations that can and should be mutually reinforcing. The purpose of this study was to systematically gain an understanding of the rural tourism value chain to identify transformation opportunities for a sustainable, resource efficient and inclusive growth path post COVID-19. The study involved mapping the rural tourism value chain by identifying all the economic activities and the associated tourism enterprise service providers that lead to value creation. Further to this, the interconnected value creation relationships between the varies rural tourism activities were identified followed by the interconnected relationships that lead to socio-economic value and environmental concerns. This whole value chain analysis provided an understanding of how value is pervasive throughout the rural tourism value chain specifically the implications of this value on rural communities and the environment. Lifecycle inventories that investigated the components of each value creating rural tourism activity, enabled the identification of all the social and environmental aspects of the services provided by the rural tourism service providers. Secondary data was then used to identify hotspots (priority areas) in the value chain specifically in terms of resource use, emissions and effluents, and solid waste. The hotspots on the rural tourism value chain include: greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from vehicles travelling to and around rural areas; use of energy in rural tourism products; sourcing of food and beverage; food waste; lack of capacity in waste infrastructure to deal with solid and hazardous waste; water use; and unsustainable harvesting of natural resources. Strategic interventions that support the sustainable transition of these hotspots were determined. These interventions include aspects promoting efficient use of natural resources, SMME development and inclusivity. The strategic interventions which include short, medium and long-term priorities will need to be developed into a transition framework for action. Show less

The COVID-19 global pandemic has caused unprecedented socio-economic impacts and, at the same time, raised awareness of the role social and environmental sustainability needs to play in our everyday life and economic activities. Despite the significant negative impacts of the pandemic on tourism in South Africa, the crisis Show more

This chapter focuses on a case study in the Northern Cape province of South Africa, home to one of the oldest indigenous peoples in the world, the //Khomani San. It will explain how a strategy can be developed to engage with, while at the same time monitoring the inclusion of ISTs within the tourism domain. Besides creating a procedure to incorporate these community voices into the tourist experience, the relationship is addressed between ISTs, tourist guides and tourists. It will argue that a mutually beneficial relationship needs to be in place for the effective involvement of ISTs in the broader heritage tourism realm. This will transform the tourist experience and understanding and enhance the position and place of the indigenous community within the heritage tourism sector in a sustainable manner. Show less

This chapter focuses on a case study in the Northern Cape province of South Africa, home to one of the oldest indigenous peoples in the world, the //Khomani San. It will explain how a strategy can be developed to engage with, while at the same time monitoring the inclusion of ISTs within the tourism domain. Besides creating Show more

Tourism is an important economic sector in many countries worldwide. Many governments are placing a higher priority on tourism development because it leads to increased foreign exchange income and creates employment opportunities. However, the tourism sector is prone to both natural and human-made crises and risks, which invariably affect the functionality, sustainability, and competitiveness of a destination. The purpose of this paper is to provide an empirical analysis of the tourists' perceptions of crises and risks affecting the tourism sector in Durban. The paper used a mixed-method through the use of surveys and direct interviews with a sample of local, regional, and international tourists and key informants in the tourism sector within Durban. The results show that the level of risks in the city is perceived to be high and was found to have a significant impact on destination decision- choices. First-time visitors might be discouraged by mediatised risks. However, repeat visitors were likely to visit Durban since they were more conversant with the local conditions. Domestic tourists were likely to visit the destination since they have various mechanisms at their disposal to deal with perceived risks than first-time visitors. Furthermore, the results indicated that tourists are resilient to negative media coverage of risks. The study concludes that several factors influence the image of a destination, so tourist visitation cannot be affected by crises and risks alone. The study recommends a multi-pronged strategy to mitigate the impact of crises and risks on the destinations. Show less

Tourism is an important economic sector in many countries worldwide. Many governments are placing a higher priority on tourism development because it leads to increased foreign exchange income and creates employment opportunities. However, the tourism sector is prone to both natural and human-made crises and risks, which Show more

The COVID-19 pandemic is catalysing changes in consumer demands as well as necessitating a paradigm shift for research on tourist behaviour and decision making. The aim of the study is to examine how niche tourism may be leveraged as part of the tourism sector’s recovery plan to rejuvenate supply and ignite demand post COVID-19. One specific niche, namely rural tourism, is investigated in detail. The COVID-19 crisis forces a renewed attention on both the potential opportunities and challenges of different spaces for rural tourism development in South Africa and of the need for evidenced-based research to inform future policy developments. This was undertaken in three case studies of rural tourism in Limpopo Greater Giyani Local Municipality; in Mpumalanga Thaba Chweu Local Municipality and in Eastern Cape Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality. Four key findings are observed. First, geographical variations exist in relation to the character and challenges facing rural tourism. This underscores the need to conceptualize and plan for rural tourism spaces in terms of (at least) three categories of fringe, in-between and remote/exotic. Second, is the poor and unsupportive institutional environment for rural tourism development in all case study municipalities. The research points to an environment for rural tourism which is dominated by considerable mismanagement and local government shortcomings as underlined by the fact that all three case studies are run by local governments classified by the Department of Cooperative Governance as “distressed and dysfunctional”. Three, the devastating impacts of COVID-19 for the tourism economies of all three local municipalities are apparent with a dramatic reduction within one year in the contribution of tourism to local GDP because of COVID-19 impacts. Four, the findings underscore the imperative for stimulating a recovery in tourism into these areas for promoting local economic development. Additionally, they point to evolving a policy framework for rural tourism revival which is not a one-size-fits-all policy but anchored on the nuances and challenges of (often) markedly different rural tourism spaces. The report presents findings based on 70 interviews. Beyond COVID-19 issues the major challenges facing the growth of rural tourism surround the chronic shortcomings of local government. Tourism business activities are constrained by the infrastructural deficiencies which are experienced by these businesses. The failure of local government to address the improvement and basic maintenance of roads, local water supplies or provide street lighting and signage are fundamental issues of concern for stimulating rural tourism in these areas. Local tourism businesses highlighted a number of interventions and support needs from government, such as financial support, improved marketing and enhancing local Tourism Information Centres. Arguably, such potentially useful support measures can only be impactful if undertaken in parallel with or following addressing the infrastructural shortcomings which are as a result of the inadequate performance of local government. In final analysis the report offers several key conclusions and recommendations relating to rural tourism. Show less

The COVID-19 pandemic is catalysing changes in consumer demands as well as necessitating a paradigm shift for research on tourist behaviour and decision making. The aim of the study is to examine how niche tourism may be leveraged as part of the tourism sector’s recovery plan to rejuvenate supply and ignite demand post Show more

The study aimed to re-examine perspectives on the recovery of South Africa’s domestic tourism in a COVID-19 environment; stipulating the aim and objectives. There is consensus about the role of domestic tourism in the tourism sector’s recovery post the devastating impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. A multi-conceptual theoretical framework (sustainable tourism development approach and ecosystem-based operational model) permits an examination of complex systems and phenomena (such as tourism) that have multidimensional as well as demand and supply-side aspects and impacts that are influenced by environmental, political, economic, and social factors. A desktop study informed the research that focused on key thematic areas: domestic tourism and the COVID-19 pandemic context and trends, domestic tourism responses to the pandemic, challenges for reigniting domestic tourism, innovative responses that are emerging and recommendations that are evident. In terms of the methodological approach adopted, national online surveys as well as face-to-face surveys in purposively selected cities/ towns (Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg, Kimberly and St Lucia) were conducted with tourism service providers (406 completed) and the general public (1 034) completed, examining supply-side and demandside/ travel behaviour patterns and perspectives, respectively. The results indicate South Africa has numerous wellestablished tourism destinations, products and resources available to rebuild a viable and strong domestic tourism sector; including internationally recognised coastal and marine, nature conservation sites and cultural tourism products. Additionally, while most South Africans generally have little, if any, disposable income; there is a sufficient proportion of the population who have discretionary income and many South African residents in this study exhibit a desire to participate in tourism activities. Thus, effective targeted marketing and providing incentives/ packages to promote domestic tourism will be critical to unlocking the potential to encourage travel and pent up demand. There are differences in tourism service provider impacts linked to type of tourism activities involved in, number of years operational, number of employees, turnover and provincial location. In relation to travel preferences, key influential factors are population group, age, income level, employment status, educational level, household size and the location of place of residence. The SWOT analysis details the strengths and opportunities as well as the weaknesses and threats that need attention. The results indicate that tourism service providers involved in customer-dependent activities located in Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal with lower turnovers, a smaller number of employees and operational for fewer years are more vulnerable to pandemic impacts and are likely to take longer to fully recover. Government and the private sector need to work together to develop affordable and quality domestic tourism products/ packages and services for local consumption while transitioning the tourism sector to be sustainable and resilient to deal with future disruptions. A framework for embracing an ecosystem operating model is proposed highlighting four key steps: re-evaluate, reconfigure, respond and stimulate domestic tourism demand. The importance of timely research with appropriate monitoring and evaluation is also underscored. Show less

The study aimed to re-examine perspectives on the recovery of South Africa’s domestic tourism in a COVID-19 environment; stipulating the aim and objectives. There is consensus about the role of domestic tourism in the tourism sector’s recovery post the devastating impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. A multi-conceptual Show more

The coronavirus pandemic has had a devastating impact on the global tourism industry. Evidence indicates that the recovery will need to be both different and innovative, especially from a product (supply) point of view given the renewed attempts to increase tourists (demand) to destinations. This research report argues that the pandemic has inevitably become the catalyst to compel the tourism domain to reconsider, redefine, reimagine, reignite and reinvigorate the sector in ways that have not been conceived of before. In essence, this amounts to what we term the “remodelling” – in other words radically and fundamentally changing and altering – tourism. From a practical point of view, there is a general consensus globally that the “restarting” of tourism within this prevailing environment needs to turn to the local domestic tourism domain as the starting point. In order to elevate domestic tourism it is argued that the focus needs to be on the product (supply). The key concern of this research report is therefore to devise a manner in which the product within the context of the domestic tourism market in South Africa can be remodelled within a COVID-19 environment. This study focuses on a novel approach to the actual product within the local domestic domain. This remodelling honed in on encouraging and stimulating the development of a tourism product that takes into account other dimensions and aspects that were not conventionally regarded as part of the tourism offering. By focussing on the product, this research argues that you can remodel the supply in order to have a knock-on effect in terms of demand at a local or domestic level in order to resuscitate tourism. It is within this South African domestic tourism ambit that Show less

The coronavirus pandemic has had a devastating impact on the global tourism industry. Evidence indicates that the recovery will need to be both different and innovative, especially from a product (supply) point of view given the renewed attempts to increase tourists (demand) to destinations. This research report argues that Show more

The overall aim of the study was to explore the impact of COVID-19 on the Tourism-Transport Interface in South Africa with a view to proposing a scenario where this relationship might create opportunities for tourism to prosper post COVID-19. The research followed a three-step process beginning with a systematic description, based on literature and secondary data, of the overall tourism/transport interface and the modes of transport, with particular reference to air and road transport. Thereafter, interviews with senior stakeholders in the airline, bus/coach and car rental industries were conducted, with these outcomes supplemented by available statistics, providing some insight into the impact of COVID-19 on the relevant sectors. The third step in the research method was to conduct scenario planning workshops with leaders in the aviation (completed), car rental (completed) and coach/bus travel (pending) sectors. The research underscores the integral nature of transport to tourism as the enabler of accessibility to, and connectivity within, South Africa as a tourist destination. The transport/ tourism interface is shown to be a highly interdependent system influenced strongly by demand, policies, infrastructure and inter-modality. While history has had a strong influence on modal choice for tourism purposes in South Africa, current pre-COVID challenges in the transport sector such as consumer behavior, transport policies and regulations, infrastructure and resource limitations are affecting international, regional and domestic tourism. One of the biggest challenges in reporting on the impact of transport for tourism and vice versa is the lack of focused data which can reflect the true nature of the interdependence of tourism and transport. Taken from various primary and secondary sources and from an international, regional and domestic perspective, this study found that most transport modes used for tourism purposes have been under pressure with little to no growth over the past number of years (pre-COVID). Rail travel as an option for tourists has decreased substantially, both regionally and domestically, there has been no real growth in coach/bus travel and declining growth in the car rental market. Private motor vehicles remain the most used for domestic tourism, particularly for purposes of VFR but the shortcomings in focused research data remains problematic in drawing accurate conclusions on this market. Show less

The overall aim of the study was to explore the impact of COVID-19 on the Tourism-Transport Interface in South Africa with a view to proposing a scenario where this relationship might create opportunities for tourism to prosper post COVID-19. The research followed a three-step process beginning with a systematic description, Show more